Montanism is an early Christian movement that arose in the late 2nd century and is considered a heresy by the early church. It was founded by Montanus, a self-proclaimed prophet from Phrygia (modern-day Turkey). Montanism emphasized prophetic revelations, ecstatic experiences, and an imminent apocalyptic vision of the world. The movement also promoted a rigid moralism and asceticism. Montanists believed that the Holy Spirit continued to give new revelations through Montanus and his two female prophetesses, Priscilla and Maximilla.
The early church rejected Montanism because it placed the prophecies and revelations of Montanus on par with, or even above, the Scriptures, and because it introduced a form of elitism that divided the church.
History of Montanism
Founding of the Movement: Montanism began around 156-172 AD in Phrygia, a region of Asia Minor, when Montanus, claiming to be inspired by the Holy Spirit, began to preach that he was the recipient of new, direct revelations from God. Montanus declared himself the mouthpiece of the Paraclete (the Holy Spirit), promised by Jesus in John 14:16. Montanus was soon joined by two female prophetesses, Priscilla (sometimes referred to as Prisca) and Maximilla, who claimed to receive visions and prophecies, further advancing the movement’s influence.
Beliefs in the Imminent End: Montanus preached that the end of the world and the return of Christ were imminent, and that a new age of the Spirit was dawning. He believed that Phrygia would be the location of the New Jerusalem, and his followers prepared for this event by living ascetic lives, abstaining from marriage, practicing strict fasting, and rejecting worldly pleasures.
Spread of the Movement: Montanism quickly spread from Phrygia to other parts of the Roman Empire, particularly in North Africa. While it initially attracted followers due to its intense spiritual fervor and emphasis on the charismatic gifts of the Spirit, it also drew significant opposition. One of the most famous later adherents was Tertullian, the North African theologian, who joined the Montanists around 207 AD due to his dissatisfaction with what he saw as the moral laxity of the mainstream church.
Condemnation by the Church: The orthodox church strongly opposed Montanism. Church leaders such as Bishop Apollinaris of Hierapolis and others condemned the movement’s practices and teachings. The new prophecies of Montanus, Priscilla, and Maximilla were viewed as a challenge to the final and sufficient revelation of Scripture, and the church rejected the claim that Montanus was the new voice of the Holy Spirit. By the 3rd century, Montanism was formally declared heretical by church councils, though remnants of the movement persisted in some regions for centuries.
Decline: By the 4th and 5th centuries, Montanism largely declined, although it survived in some regions, such as North Africa, for several more centuries. Eventually, it was eradicated by mainstream Christian orthodoxy, but its emphasis on charismatic gifts and prophetic revelations would continue to reappear in various Christian movements throughout history.
Theology of Montanism
The theology of Montanism deviated from orthodox Christianity in several key ways:
Ongoing Revelation: Montanism’s most controversial feature was its belief in ongoing revelation through prophets. Montanus, Priscilla, and Maximilla claimed that their prophecies were direct messages from the Holy Spirit, sometimes even surpassing the authority of Scripture and apostolic teaching. Montanists believed that the Holy Spirit was revealing a new, final dispensation through their prophetic ministry. This directly challenged the church’s belief in the closed canon of Scripture and the finality of divine revelation through Christ and the apostles (Hebrews 1:1-2).
Apocalyptic Focus: Montanism had a strong eschatological (end-times) focus, emphasizing the imminent return of Christ and the establishment of the New Jerusalem. Montanus claimed that Phrygia would be the center of this new era, and his followers were urged to prepare for the coming judgment by embracing asceticism and separating themselves from worldly pleasures.
Moral Rigorism: Montanism advocated a strict and rigorous morality. Montanists often fasted, renounced marriage (or lived celibate within marriage), and adhered to strict ethical demands. They condemned those who lapsed during persecution and believed that sins committed after baptism could not be forgiven. Montanism emphasized martyrdom and was highly critical of Christians who sought to avoid martyrdom during times of persecution.
Charismatic and Ecstatic Prophecy: Montanism promoted the practice of ecstatic prophecy, where individuals would enter into trance-like states and deliver prophecies believed to come directly from the Holy Spirit. Montanus and his prophetesses would speak in the first person as though the Holy Spirit were directly speaking through them (e.g., “I am the Lord; I am the Father; I am the Paraclete”). This ecstatic, highly emotional form of prophecy was seen by many early church leaders as disruptive and inconsistent with the order and discipline of the church.
Elitism and Division: Montanism fostered a sense of elitism and spiritual superiority. Montanists viewed themselves as the true, spirit-filled Christians, while they saw the rest of the church as compromising and spiritually dead. This created divisions between Montanists and the wider Christian community, and Montanists often withdrew from the mainstream church, claiming a direct connection with the Holy Spirit that others lacked.
Why Montanism is Heretical
Montanism was declared heretical by the early church for several reasons:
Ongoing Revelation and Challenge to Scripture: Montanism’s belief in ongoing revelation through Montanus and his prophetesses was seen as a direct challenge to the sufficiency and finality of Scripture. The church taught that divine revelation was complete with the apostles and the writing of the New Testament. Hebrews 1:1-2 affirms that God has spoken through His Son, Jesus Christ, and the apostles’ teaching is considered authoritative. Montanism’s claim that new revelations could supersede or add to the apostolic tradition undermined the church’s understanding of biblical authority.
Distortion of Prophetic Gifts: While the New Testament acknowledges the gift of prophecy (1 Corinthians 12:10, 14:1), Montanism’s form of ecstatic prophecy was considered excessive and chaotic. The Apostle Paul had already cautioned the early church to exercise the gifts of the Spirit in an orderly and edifying manner (1 Corinthians 14:33, 40). Montanism’s approach to prophecy, where individuals spoke in the name of God and introduced new doctrines, was regarded as contrary to the orderly exercise of spiritual gifts in the church.
Elitism and Division: Montanism created a spiritual elite, claiming that only their group possessed the fullness of the Holy Spirit. This led to division in the church, as Montanists often withdrew from the larger Christian community, accusing the mainstream church of spiritual deadness. The early church condemned such sectarianism, emphasizing the unity of the body of Christ and the need for believers to remain in communion with the broader Christian community (Ephesians 4:3-6).
Over-Emphasis on Asceticism: Montanism’s extreme emphasis on asceticism, including fasting, celibacy, and rigorous moral demands, went beyond what the early church considered appropriate. The Montanists’ rigid moralism, especially their refusal to forgive serious sins like apostasy during persecution, was considered inconsistent with the Christian message of grace and forgiveness (John 20:23, 1 John 1:9).
False Prophecies: Many of the prophecies delivered by Montanus, Priscilla, and Maximilla were proven false, particularly regarding the imminent arrival of the New Jerusalem. Maximilla, for example, claimed that there would be no more prophets after her, and that the end of the world was near. When these prophecies failed to materialize, it further discredited the movement and confirmed for many in the church that the Montanist prophets were not speaking from the Holy Spirit (Deuteronomy 18:20-22).
Historic Christian Orthodox View
The historic Christian view rejects Montanism's claims of new revelations and upholds the sufficiency of Scripture and the finality of divine revelation in Christ and the apostles. Key elements of the orthodox view include:
The Sufficiency of Scripture: Christian orthodoxy teaches that the canon of Scripture is complete, and that the apostolic teaching found in the New Testament is sufficient for guiding the faith and practice of the church. No new prophecies or revelations can supersede the authoritative word of God given in Scripture (2 Timothy 3:16-17). The church has historically rejected any movement that seeks to add new doctrinal revelations to the Bible, as Montanism did.
Proper Use of Spiritual Gifts: While the gifts of the Holy Spirit, including prophecy, are acknowledged in the New Testament, the early church emphasized the orderly and edifying use of such gifts within the community (1 Corinthians 14:33, 40). Any claim to prophetic authority must be tested against the teaching of Scripture (1 John 4:1), and the church rejected the disorder and elitism introduced by the Montanists.
Unity of the Church: The early church emphasized the importance of unity in the body of Christ (Ephesians 4:3-6). Montanism, with its claims of spiritual superiority and its tendency to break away from the larger Christian community, undermined the unity that the church was called to maintain. The early church rejected any form of elitism that set one group of Christians against another.
Grace and Forgiveness: Christian orthodoxy upholds the grace of God and the possibility of forgiveness for even the most serious sins. Montanism’s refusal to forgive those who lapsed during persecution conflicted with the Christian doctrine of God’s mercy and the call to forgive repentant sinners (Luke 15:11-32; 1 John 1:9). The church consistently rejected legalistic or overly harsh approaches to morality that did not reflect the forgiveness offered in Christ.
Conclusion
Montanism was a charismatic, apocalyptic movement in the early church that emphasized new revelations through prophetic figures and promoted a rigorous moralism and ascetic lifestyle. Its claim that the Holy Spirit was revealing new truths through Montanus and his prophetesses led to its condemnation as a heresy by the wider Christian church. Montanism’s emphasis on ongoing revelation, its elitism, and its divisive nature were seen as direct challenges to the authority of Scripture, the unity of the church, and the message of grace in Christian teaching. The historic Christian orthodox view holds that divine revelation was completed in Christ and the apostles, and that the Bible alone is the final and sufficient authority for the faith and practice of the church.