Modalism (Sabellianism, Noetianism, and Patripassianism)
Modalism, also known as Sabellianism after its chief proponent Sabellius, is a theological error that denies the distinction of persons within the Trinity. Modalists believe that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are not three distinct persons but rather three modes or manifestations of a single divine being. According to this view, God reveals Himself as the Father in creation, the Son in redemption, and the Holy Spirit in sanctification, but He is never all three simultaneously. This oneness theology undermines the co-eternal nature of the persons of the Trinity, denying the interpersonal relationships between the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
Patripassianism, a subset of Modalism, takes its name from the idea that the Father ("patri" in Greek) suffered ("passio" in Latin) during Christ’s crucifixion, implying that the Father and the Son are the same person. Thus, when Christ suffered, the Father also suffered—a notion rejected by orthodox Trinitarian theology because it confuses the distinct roles of the persons of the Trinity. Modalism was condemned in the early church for failing to maintain the distinctiveness of the three divine persons, which is central to the doctrine of the Trinity.
Tritheism
Tritheism falsely teaches that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are three independent and separate gods who share a common divine substance or essence. This heresy misunderstands the doctrine of the Trinity by dividing the divine essence into three distinct beings, each with their own will and attributes, which results in polytheism. The confusion often arises from a misinterpretation of the term "person" (Greek: hypostasis), used in Trinitarian theology. Orthodox Trinitarian doctrine holds that while the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are distinct persons, they are not three separate gods but are one God who eternally exists as three persons sharing the same divine essence (homoousios). Tritheism was rejected by the ecumenical councils as incompatible with the Christian understanding of monotheism.
Arianism
Arianism, founded by the Alexandrian priest Arius in the early 4th century, teaches that Jesus Christ, the Son of God, was not co-eternal with the Father and was instead a created being. According to Arius, the Son was the first and greatest of God’s creatures but was not fully divine in the same sense as the Father. Arianism denies the eternality and equality of the Son with the Father, suggesting that there was a time when the Son did not exist. This view challenged the divine nature of Christ, reducing Him to a lesser, subordinate deity. The Arian controversy was addressed at the Council of Nicaea (325 AD), which affirmed the Son's full divinity and equality with the Father, encapsulated in the phrase "of one substance with the Father" (homoousios). The Nicene Creed was formulated to reject Arianism and assert the co-eternal and consubstantial nature of the Father and the Son.
Semi-Arianism
Semi-Arianism is a modified form of Arianism that developed after the Council of Nicaea. It taught that the Son was similar to the Father but not of the same essence. In other words, the Son was begotten before time began but not eternally co-equal with the Father in essence. The Greek term used was homoiousios ("of similar substance") rather than the orthodox homoousios ("of the same substance").
- Semi-Arians sought a compromise between orthodox Trinitarianism and full-blown Arianism, but their view still undermined the full divinity of Christ by asserting that the Son was not fully equal to the Father.
Orthodox Response: Semi-Arianism was formally condemned at the Council of Constantinople in 381, where the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed affirmed that the Son is "of one substance" with the Father (homoousios) and not merely similar in essence.
Arian Subordinationism
A distinct but related version of Subordinationism, Arian Subordinationism more specifically focuses on the Son being a created being, while holding that the Holy Spirit is perhaps less divine or a product of the Father’s will. This heresy asserts that the Son and Holy Spirit are not eternal but came into being at some point, placing them below the Father in both eternality and nature.
- Arianism itself was primarily concerned with the nature of Christ, but the implications also carried over to the Holy Spirit, as some Arians denied the full deity of the Spirit as well.
Orthodox Response: The Council of Constantinople (381 AD) directly addressed this issue by affirming the full divinity of the Holy Spirit, marking the final rejection of Arian and semi-Arian forms of subordinationism.
Docetism
Docetism teaches that Jesus Christ, though fully divine, only appeared to be human. The term “docetism” comes from the Greek word dokein, meaning "to seem" or "to appear." According to Docetists, Christ’s human body and sufferings were mere illusions, and He did not truly experience the physical pain or death on the cross. Some versions of Docetism suggest that Christ’s divinity abandoned Him at the crucifixion, leaving only His human appearance. Others maintain that the divine nature of Christ simply masked His humanity. Docetism undermines the reality of the Incarnation, where the eternal Son of God took on real human flesh and nature (John 1:14), and the belief that Christ’s death was a real sacrifice for sin. The church condemned Docetism as a denial of Christ's true humanity, which is necessary for His role as the Mediator between God and humanity (1 Timothy 2:5).
Ebionitism
Ebionitism is an early Christian heresy that teaches that Jesus was a mere man—a prophet or moral teacher—who was distinguished by God’s anointing but was not divine by nature. The Ebionites, a Jewish-Christian sect, denied the pre-existence and divinity of Christ, viewing Him as a purely human figure who was chosen by God because of His righteousness. They also adhered to certain aspects of Jewish law, rejecting the apostle Paul and his teachings on the grace of God and the fulfillment of the Mosaic Law in Christ. Ebionitism’s denial of Jesus’ divine nature stands in opposition to the orthodox teaching that Christ is both fully God and fully man, necessary for His role in salvation as God incarnate (John 1:1, 14; Colossians 2:9).
Macedonianism (Pneumatomachianism)
Macedonianism, also known as Pneumatomachianism (meaning "fighters against the Spirit"), taught that the Holy Spirit is a created being rather than a divine person of the Trinity. This heresy is named after Macedonius, a bishop of Constantinople, who promoted the view that the Holy Spirit was not of the same divine substance as the Father and the Son. Macedonianism reduced the Holy Spirit to a lesser being, akin to an angel or a created power, denying His full divinity and personhood. The orthodox Christian belief, affirmed by the Council of Constantinople (381 AD), is that the Holy Spirit, like the Father and the Son, is fully God and of the same divine essence (homoousios), deserving of equal worship and glory (Matthew 28:19; Acts 5:3-4).
Adoptionism
Adoptionism is the belief that Jesus was born a normal human and was later adopted by God as His Son at some point in His life, usually at His baptism or resurrection. This heresy denies the eternal Sonship of Christ, teaching that Jesus only became the Son of God after being chosen for a special divine mission. Adoptionism was prominent in the second and eighth centuries and was condemned by the church because it denied the pre-existence of Christ and the doctrine that Jesus is the eternally begotten Son of God, coequal with the Father (John 1:1-2; Philippians 2:6-8). The orthodox Christian belief is that Jesus was always the Son of God, not adopted or made divine at a later point.
Partialism
Partialism teaches that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are not fully God individually but are parts of God that together make up the one divine being. In this view, each person of the Trinity is only partially God—as though God were divided into components, with the Father, Son, and Spirit each contributing to the whole. This heresy reduces the persons of the Trinity to fragments of the divine essence and undermines the biblical teaching that each person of the Trinity is fully and completely God in themselves. Partialism contradicts the doctrine of the Trinity, which holds that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are co-equal, co-eternal, and fully divine, sharing one divine nature (Deuteronomy 6:4; Matthew 28:19; 2 Corinthians 13:14).
Subordinationism
Subordinationism is the belief that the Son and the Holy Spirit are subordinate to the Father in nature or essence, rather than simply in role or function. In this view, the Son and Spirit are not fully co-equal with the Father. While orthodox Trinitarian doctrine teaches that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are equal in essence (sharing the same divine nature), Subordinationism claims that the Son and Spirit are somehow inferior to the Father, either in their being or in their divinity.
- Arius is often associated with a form of subordinationism because he taught that the Son was created and therefore inferior to the Father.
- A milder form of subordinationism sometimes arose in early church debates where the Father was understood to be the source of the Son, but this was condemned in favor of affirming that all three persons are equal and co-eternal.
Orthodox Response: Subordinationism was addressed at the Council of Nicaea (325 AD) and later reaffirmed at Constantinople (381 AD) through the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed, which clearly teaches the full equality of the three persons of the Trinity. The Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are co-equal and share the same divine essence, although they have distinct roles in salvation.
Binitarianism
Binitarianism is the belief that there are only two persons in the Godhead, usually the Father and the Son, while either denying or diminishing the full divinity and personhood of the Holy Spirit. Some forms of early Jewish Christianity and certain Gnostic sects taught versions of this belief, focusing primarily on the Father and Son while neglecting the role of the Holy Spirit.
- In some modern versions, Binitarianism may emphasize a high Christology (the divinity of Christ) but fail to give equal importance to the personhood and deity of the Holy Spirit, making Him merely a force or an impersonal aspect of God.
Orthodox Response: The full divinity and personhood of the Holy Spirit was affirmed in the Nicene Creed and later explicitly clarified in the Council of Constantinople (381 AD). The Creed was expanded to confess belief in the Holy Spirit as "the Lord and Giver of Life, who proceeds from the Father [and the Son], who with the Father and the Son is worshiped and glorified." This established the Holy Spirit as fully divine and consubstantial with the Father and the Son.
Monarchianism
Monarchianism is a broad term that refers to two distinct theological errors: Modalistic Monarchianism (Modalism) and Dynamic Monarchianism (Adoptionism). Both forms of Monarchianism sought to preserve the unity of God (the "monarchy" of the Father) but at the expense of the full distinction of the persons within the Trinity.
Modalistic Monarchianism (which overlaps with Modalism or Sabellianism) teaches that God is one person who manifests Himself in different modes or forms (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit) but never exists as all three persons simultaneously. As discussed earlier, this view denies the real distinctions between the persons of the Trinity.
Dynamic Monarchianism (or Adoptionism) teaches that Jesus was adopted by God, becoming divine at His baptism or resurrection. It denies the pre-existence of the Son and teaches that Jesus was merely a man who was granted divine status later.
Orthodox Response: Both forms of Monarchianism were rejected by the early church because they fail to uphold the distinctions and co-equality of the three persons of the Trinity. The church affirmed that while God is one in essence, He exists eternally in three distinct persons, each fully divine and fully participating in the divine work of creation and redemption.
Ditheism
Ditheism teaches that there are two distinct and independent gods. This heresy can arise when the Father and Son are viewed as separate deities, not fully united in the one essence of God. Ditheism sometimes arose as a misunderstanding of the Trinitarian language regarding the distinct persons of the Father and Son, especially when believers wrongly inferred that the Son was an inferior deity or a second God rather than one of the persons within the one Godhead.
Orthodox Response: Ditheism was rejected by the early church, particularly through the clarifications of the Nicene Creed, which insisted on the unity of the divine essence while maintaining the distinctness of the persons. The church affirmed that Christianity is monotheistic, and the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are one God in three persons, not three separate deities.
These heresies have been firmly rejected by the ecumenical councils of the early church and are seen as dangerous distortions of the Trinitarian doctrine revealed in Scripture. Orthodox Christianity affirms that God is one in essence (one God) and three in person (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit), with each person fully and equally divine, yet distinct in their relationships and roles within the Godhead.