Roman Catholicism, though historically rooted in early Christianity, has developed certain doctrines and practices that Protestants and Eastern Orthodox theologians have sometimes viewed as heretical or seriously flawed from a biblical and theological perspective. While it is incorrect to label Roman Catholicism as a single heresy in the same way as distinct ancient heresies like Arianism or Pelagianism, Protestant reformers and later Reformed theologians have critiqued Roman Catholicism for deviating from historic Christian orthodoxy on key doctrines, particularly concerning salvation, authority, and grace.
History of Roman Catholicism
Early Church Development: The Roman Catholic Church traces its origins to the apostles, especially to Peter, who, according to Catholic tradition, was the first bishop of Rome. Over the first few centuries of the church, the bishop of Rome became increasingly influential, particularly after the Constantinian shift in the 4th century, when Christianity was legalized and eventually became the state religion of the Roman Empire.
Rise of Papal Authority: By the time of Pope Leo the Great (5th century) and Pope Gregory the Great (6th century), the authority of the Roman bishop had grown significantly. Over the next several centuries, the papacy asserted jurisdictional primacy over the entire church. This claim was increasingly opposed by the Eastern Orthodox Church, culminating in the Great Schism of 1054, which divided Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism.
Medieval Developments: Throughout the medieval period, the Roman Catholic Church developed doctrines that would later be seen as controversial by the Protestant Reformers. These included the increasing emphasis on sacraments as necessary for salvation, the development of the doctrine of Purgatory, the practice of indulgences, and the centralized power of the Pope as the Vicar of Christ on earth.
The Reformation (16th Century): The most significant historical challenge to Roman Catholicism came during the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century. Reformers such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Ulrich Zwingli critiqued Catholic doctrines on salvation, sacraments, authority, and the papacy, claiming that the Roman Church had deviated from biblical teaching. The Roman Catholic Church responded with the Council of Trent (1545–1563), which reaffirmed its doctrines and condemned Protestant teachings, including justification by faith alone (sola fide).
Post-Reformation and Vatican Councils: In response to modernity and internal challenges, the Catholic Church held the First Vatican Council (1869–1870), which defined the doctrine of papal infallibility when the Pope speaks ex cathedra on matters of faith and morals. The Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) modernized certain practices and emphasized ecumenism but retained core Roman Catholic doctrines, particularly regarding salvation, authority, and the sacraments.
Theology of Roman Catholicism
Roman Catholic theology is complex and covers a wide range of beliefs. While Catholicism affirms the Trinity, Christ’s divinity, and many essential aspects of historic Christian orthodoxy, several key areas have been critiqued as deviations from the biblical gospel. Below are some of the theological aspects of Roman Catholicism that have been seen as problematic, particularly by Protestant theologians.
Salvation and Grace: Semi-Pelagianism in Practice: While the Roman Catholic Church officially rejected Pelagianism at the Council of Carthage (418 AD), aspects of semi-Pelagianism have been identified in its theology, particularly in how grace and free will are understood in the process of salvation. In Catholic theology:
Baptism is believed to remove original sin and impart initial justifying grace. From this point, a person must cooperate with God’s grace through faith, good works, and participation in the sacraments to maintain and grow in salvation.
Justification in Catholicism is seen as a process, not a one-time declaration, where grace is infused and works, along with grace, contribute to one’s righteousness. This differs from the Protestant teaching of justification by faith alone, where justification is viewed as a one-time forensic act, where the believer is declared righteous by faith alone, without the need for ongoing meritorious works (Romans 3:28; Ephesians 2:8-9).
Merit: While Catholic teaching affirms the necessity of grace, it also teaches that human cooperation and good works, enabled by grace, can merit an increase in grace and contribute to one’s final salvation. Protestants see this as a form of semi-Pelagianism, as it implies that human effort plays a role in securing salvation, rather than salvation being entirely the work of God’s grace.
The Sacraments as Necessary for Salvation: The Roman Catholic Church teaches that the seven sacraments (Baptism, Eucharist, Confirmation, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Matrimony, and Holy Orders) are the means through which grace is administered. Of these, Baptism and the Eucharist (the Mass) are considered especially essential for salvation. Catholicism teaches that:
- Baptism is necessary for salvation, as it removes original sin and imparts initial grace.
- The Eucharist (which Catholics believe is the real presence of Christ, transformed in the elements of bread and wine) is a means of receiving grace and maintaining one’s salvation.
Protestants, particularly Reformed and Lutheran traditions, agree that baptism and the Lord’s Supper are important means of grace but reject the idea that they are necessary for salvation or that they convey grace apart from faith.
Papal Primacy and Infallibility: Roman Catholicism asserts that the Pope holds supreme authority over the universal Church as the Vicar of Christ and the successor of Peter. The doctrine of papal infallibility, defined at the First Vatican Council, teaches that when the Pope speaks ex cathedra (from his official position as the leader of the church) on matters of faith and morals, his teachings are infallible and without error.
Protestants and Eastern Orthodox theologians reject these claims. Protestants hold that Scripture alone (sola scriptura) is the final authority in matters of faith and doctrine, not the declarations of a single church leader (2 Timothy 3:16-17). The Eastern Orthodox Church maintains a conciliar view of authority, where the church is led by councils of bishops rather than a single supreme leader.
The Doctrine of Purgatory and Indulgences: Catholic theology teaches the existence of Purgatory, a state where believers who have not fully satisfied the temporal punishment for their sins must undergo purification before entering heaven. This teaching is based on the Catholic understanding that sins have both eternal (forgiven through confession) and temporal consequences (which may still require purification).
In connection with Purgatory, the Church historically offered indulgences, which are reductions in the temporal punishment due for sin, based on the merits of Christ and the saints. During the Reformation, the selling of indulgences was a major point of contention, with Martin Luther denouncing the practice in his 95 Theses. Protestants reject both Purgatory and indulgences, teaching that Christ’s work on the cross is sufficient for the full remission of sins (Hebrews 10:14; 1 John 1:7).
Veneration of Saints and Mary: Roman Catholicism teaches that believers can venerate the saints and Mary, the mother of Jesus, and ask for their intercession. Catholic theology holds that Mary is the Mediatrix of all graces and that she plays a special role in interceding for believers.
Protestants reject this practice, emphasizing that Christ alone is the mediator between God and man (1 Timothy 2:5). The veneration of saints and prayers to Mary are viewed as detracting from the sole sufficiency of Christ’s work and His role as the only mediator.
Priests and Saints:
The Role of Priests: The role of priests in Catholicism is a significant area of concern when compared to biblical teachings on Christ’s priesthood. According to Scripture, Jesus Christ is our ultimate and eternal High Priest (Hebrews 4:14-16), the sole mediator who intercedes on behalf of His people. In the Catholic Church, however, priests function as intermediaries, mediating sacraments such as confession, the Eucharist, and last rites. This role diminishes Christ’s singular priestly role by establishing human priests as additional mediators.The New Covenant message in the New Testament presents Christ alone as the one mediator between God and humanity (1 Timothy 2:5), making human mediators unnecessary for accessing God’s grace. From this view, any practice that suggests reliance on human priests for salvation completely misinterprets the unique work of Christ, who has fully accomplished our redemption and opened the way to direct access to God for every believer (Hebrews 10:19-22).
The Concept of Saints: In Catholicism, saints are venerated, and believers may pray to them as intercessors. This practice introduces intermediaries beyond Christ, whom the Bible describes as the sole mediator. While it is biblical to honor the lives of faithful Christians who have gone before us, the Catholic practice of praying to saints for help or intercession directly contradicts the Bible’s teaching that all believers are saints—“holy ones” set apart by God for His purposes (Romans 1:7, 1 Corinthians 1:2). Scripture consistently directs us to bring our requests directly to God through Jesus Christ alone, who is our one and only mediator and intercessor before the Father (1 Timothy 2:5; Hebrews 7:25).
The Bible offers no precedent for seeking the aid of saints; instead, it underscores that we are invited, and even commanded, to approach God with confidence through Christ. By turning to saints for things only God can provide—such as peace, guidance, protection, or forgiveness—this practice runs dangerously close to idolatry, as it places trust in beings other than God to meet our needs. Praying to saints can detract from Christ’s unique role as our mediator and risks undermining the exclusive relationship every believer is privileged to have with God through Christ.
What About Matthew 16:18 and Papal Succession: If you approached Matthew 16:18 with a fresh perspective, without any denominational lens, the passage doesn’t inherently suggest a line of succession through Peter. In fact, given the immediate context, most readers would naturally interpret it as a straightforward affirmation of Peter’s confession and the foundational truth about Jesus’ identity. Jesus’ response to Peter is clearly tied to Peter’s declaration that Jesus is “the Christ, the Son of the living God,” rather than to any notion of institutional authority. The doctrine of apostolic succession, especially as it pertains to the papacy, emerged over centuries as the church grew in structure and authority became more centralized. This interpretation wasn’t developed by simply reading Matthew 16:18 in its context; rather, it was shaped by historical, political, and ecclesiastical developments within the early church, especially as the Roman bishopric sought to establish its primacy. It’s not something that arises naturally from the text itself but is instead a theological conclusion that was shaped over time to support a particular understanding of church authority and hierarchy. This view was retroactively applied to Matthew 16:18 by the medieval church to justify the authority of the papacy. This is the difference between reading out of the text (exegesis) and reading into the text (eisegesis).
The New Testament consistently presents Jesus as the foundation of the Church, not any individual apostle. In 1 Corinthians 3:11, Paul writes, “For other foundation can no man lay than that is laid, which is Jesus Christ.” Ephesians 2:20 describes the Church as “built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ himself being the chief corner stone.” These passages suggest that the Church is built on the teaching of the apostles concerning Christ, not on the apostles themselves, with Jesus as the ultimate foundation.
Nothing in Matthew 16:18 or the surrounding context explicitly indicates that Jesus is establishing a line of succession through Peter. Jesus does not speak of successors, future authority, or any continuing office beyond the original apostles. The emphasis is instead on the Church's enduring foundation against the “gates of hell” (the powers of death and evil), which will not prevail against it.
Additionally, in the broader New Testament, there is no evidence that Peter is considered a superior authority among the apostles. While he is often prominent in the early chapters of Acts, the Church's leadership is shared among the apostles, and authority is distributed collectively (Acts 15:1-21). Paul, for example, confronts Peter openly in Galatians 2:11-14, showing that Peter did not hold an unquestioned authority.
In the passage, Jesus gives Peter “the keys of the kingdom of heaven” and the authority to “bind” and “loose.” However, a few chapters later, Jesus extends the same authority to all the disciples, saying, “Whatsoever ye shall bind on earth shall be bound in heaven” (Matthew 18:18). This suggests that the authority to “bind” and “loose” was not unique to Peter but was given to the Church as a whole through the apostles. It implies authority in preaching the gospel, declaring forgiveness of sins, and upholding church discipline rather than the establishment of a unique office.
Why Roman Catholicism is Criticized as Semi-Pelagian
While Roman Catholicism officially rejects Pelagianism (the belief that humans can achieve salvation on their own without God’s grace), critics argue that Catholic theology contains elements of semi-Pelagianism, which teaches that humans must cooperate with God’s grace in a way that places too much emphasis on human effort.
Grace and Works: In Roman Catholicism, while grace is necessary for salvation, human beings are seen as actively cooperating with grace, and their works play a role in meriting further grace and eternal life. This contrasts with Reformed theology, which teaches that salvation is entirely by grace through faith alone and that good works are the fruit of salvation, not a contributing factor (Ephesians 2:8-10). In Roman Catholicism, Christ is necessary for salvation, but not suficient.to save to the uttermost.
Justification as a Process: In Catholic theology, justification is not a one-time act but an ongoing process involving faith, works, and participation in the sacraments. Protestants argue that this process-oriented view of salvation is semi-Pelagian because it implies that human cooperation with grace is necessary for final salvation, rather than seeing salvation as a completed work of God, received by faith alone.
The Historic Christian Orthodox View
The historic Christian orthodox view, particularly as developed during the Reformation, emphasizes:
Justification by Faith Alone (Sola Fide): The Reformers, following Augustine’s teachings on grace, affirmed that human beings are justified by faith alone in Christ, without the need for works to contribute to their salvation (Romans 3:28; Galatians 2:16). Good works are the result of saving faith, not the cause of it.
Salvation by Grace Alone (Sola Gratia): Salvation is a gift of God’s grace alone, apart from any human merit or effort (Ephesians 2:8-9). The historic Christian view holds that fallen human beings are totally depraved and incapable of coming to God without the work of the Holy Spirit to regenerate them. Grace is not a helper to human effort but the sovereign action of God that accomplishes salvation from start to finish.
Authority of Scripture Alone (Sola Scriptura): The Reformers rejected the notion of papal authority and infallibility, arguing that Scripture alone is the final authority in all matters of faith and practice (2 Timothy 3:16-17). The Bible, not church tradition or papal decrees, is the ultimate guide for Christian doctrine.
Christ Alone (Solus Christus): Salvation is found in Christ alone. There are no other mediators between God and humanity, and believers do not need the intercession of Mary or the saints to approach God. Christ’s atoning sacrifice is fully sufficient for salvation (1 Timothy 2:5; Hebrews 7:25).
Conclusion
Roman Catholicism is a complex theological system that, while affirming many central Christian doctrines, contains elements that have been critiqued as heretical or semi-Pelagian by Protestant and Eastern Orthodox theologians. Key issues include its views on salvation, where cooperation with grace and the performance of good works are seen as necessary for final salvation, its claims to papal primacy and infallibility, and its teachings on Purgatory, indulgences, and the veneration of saints and Mary. The historic Christian orthodox view, as articulated by the Protestant Reformers, emphasizes justification by faith alone, salvation by grace alone, and the authority of Scripture alone, rejecting the semi-Pelagian tendencies found in Roman Catholic theology.