Adoptionism is a Christological heresy that emerged in the early centuries of Christianity, primarily asserting that Jesus was not the eternal Son of God by nature, but rather a human being who was “adopted” as the Son of God at some point in his life, typically at his baptism or resurrection. This belief directly conflicts with the historic Christian understanding of the nature of Christ, as outlined by orthodox creeds and councils.
History of Adoptionism
Adoptionism first appeared in the early church during the 2nd and 3rd centuries and later resurfaced in different forms throughout church history.
Early Adoptionism: One of the early figures associated with Adoptionism was Theodotus of Byzantium, a leatherworker who lived in the late 2nd century. Theodotus taught that Jesus was born as a mere man and later adopted by God as His Son at the time of his baptism because of his virtue. This idea gained some following in Rome, but it was condemned by the church. Pope Victor I excommunicated Theodotus in 190 AD for his views.
Dynamic Monarchianism: Another form of Adoptionism, sometimes called Dynamic Monarchianism, was associated with Paul of Samosata, a bishop of Antioch in the 3rd century. Paul denied that Jesus was God by nature and taught that the divine Logos or power of God descended upon the man Jesus, making him the "Son of God" in a functional sense, not by eternal divine nature. This was condemned by a synod at Antioch in 268 AD.
Spanish Adoptionism: A later revival of Adoptionism occurred in 8th-century Spain. The bishops Elipandus of Toledo and Felix of Urgell taught that Jesus was the Son of God in two different senses: by his divinity, he was the Son by nature, but by his humanity, he was adopted as the Son of God. This view was eventually condemned at the Council of Frankfurt in 794 AD, with Charlemagne supporting its rejection.
Theology of Adoptionism
Adoptionism, in all its forms, shares a central theological error: it denies the eternal divine Sonship of Christ and instead teaches that Jesus became the Son of God at some point during his earthly life. The specific theological ideas include:
Christ's Humanity Over Divinity: Adoptionists emphasize Christ’s humanity at the expense of his divinity. They typically argue that Jesus was born as a mere human, albeit a particularly virtuous one. Through some event, such as his baptism (as believed by Theodotus) or resurrection, God adopted Jesus as His Son, bestowing upon him divine status or authority.
Functional Sonship: Rather than being the eternal Son of God by nature, Jesus is seen as becoming the Son through God’s declaration or empowerment. The divine Logos is viewed as impersonal, merely dwelling within Jesus or empowering him, but not constituting the person of Christ.
Denial of Pre-existence: Adoptionism denies that Jesus existed as the eternal Word of God before his incarnation, contradicting the traditional doctrine of the eternal generation of the Son. According to Adoptionism, Jesus’ divine sonship is a title or function that he acquired rather than an eternal reality.
Historic Christian Orthodox View
The historic Christian orthodox view of Christ, developed in response to heresies like Adoptionism, is that Jesus Christ is the eternally begotten Son of God, fully divine and fully human, united in one person. This view is known as Chalcedonian Christology and is affirmed in the major creeds and councils of the early church.
Council of Nicaea (325 AD): In response to Arianism, another Christological heresy, the Nicene Creed affirmed the eternal generation of the Son—that Jesus is "begotten, not made" and "of one substance with the Father." The Council of Nicaea rejected any notion that Christ was a created being or adopted by God.
Council of Chalcedon (451 AD): The Chalcedonian Definition affirmed that Jesus Christ is one person with two natures—divine and human. His divine nature is eternal, and he has always been the Son of God, even before his incarnation. His human nature was assumed in time through the virgin birth, but he did not become the Son of God through adoption or by divine fiat.
Hypostatic Union: Orthodox Christology teaches the doctrine of the hypostatic union, meaning that in the one person of Christ, his divine and human natures are united without confusion, change, division, or separation. Jesus is fully God and fully man, from the moment of the incarnation, not at some later point.
Pre-existence of Christ: Orthodoxy holds that Christ, as the eternal Logos (Word), existed with God from all eternity (John 1:1-3). His divine sonship is not something he acquired but something he has always possessed. As the Nicene Creed puts it, he is "begotten of the Father before all worlds."
Why Adoptionism is Heretical
Adoptionism is considered heretical for several reasons:
Denial of Christ's Divinity: By claiming that Jesus was adopted as the Son of God, Adoptionism undermines the true divinity of Christ. It essentially denies that Christ was fully divine from eternity and asserts that he only became divine through an act of adoption, which contradicts the biblical and creedal affirmations of his eternal Sonship.
Contradiction of Scripture: The Bible consistently teaches that Jesus is the eternal Son of God. John 1:1-14, Philippians 2:6-7, and Colossians 1:15-17 affirm Christ's pre-existence and eternal divinity. Jesus is not a man who became divine but God who became man.
Undermines the Atonement: Adoptionism’s failure to recognize the full divinity of Christ jeopardizes the doctrine of the atonement. According to historic Christian theology, only someone who is fully God and fully man could mediate between God and humanity and accomplish salvation. A mere human, even one adopted by God, would not suffice for the redemptive work required for the forgiveness of sin.
Conclusion
Adoptionism is a heretical view that arose in the early centuries of the church and has been repeatedly condemned by orthodox Christianity. It undermines the eternal divine Sonship of Christ, contradicts the biblical witness to Christ's pre-existence, and distorts the doctrine of the Trinity. The historic orthodox view, as outlined by the Nicene Creed and the Council of Chalcedon, affirms that Jesus Christ is the eternally begotten Son of God, fully divine and fully human, united in one person without confusion.